14 July 2024 // Ezekiel 28:11-19, Isaiah 14:12-21, Revelation 20:7-10
SERMON REVIEW:
Lucifer’s Fall:
A. His Perfection - Ezekiel 28:11-15
B. His Pride - Ezekiel 28:16-19; Isaiah 14:12-14
Lucifer’s Fate: Isaiah 14:15-21
Lucifer’s Final Destination: Rev. 20: 7-10
QUESTIONS:
LIFE APPLICATION :
Living in the Light of Judgment Day
In medieval Europe, powerful church leaders taught ordinary people that this life is a temporary pilgrimage, a time of preparing for the eternal state. Everyone understood that they would one day stand before God on judgment day to face his fearful sentence. The greatest painter ever to depict the judgment was Michelangelo. Many believe that his awesome fresco of the last judgment (painted 1536–41 for Pope Paul III) in the Sistine Chapel, along with the even more famous frescoes on the chapel’s ceiling, is the most important art produced during the Renaissance. I have stood before it in silence with its powerful reminder that I, too, will face an eternal Judge one day.
The conviction that one must live every day in preparation for judgment day pervaded everyday life in those days to an extent we cannot imagine. In fact, contemporary people often live by the reverse belief: this life is all there is, so enjoy it to the fullest. It’s hard to think about a contemporary painter creating a great masterpiece about the coming day of judgment and then being taken seriously by the world’s artistic community.
Revelation 20 is another such masterpiece, literary rather than visual, and centuries older than Michelangelo’s great work. Despite the difficulties in interpreting portions of the chapter, the central theme is overwhelming. We have misread the chapter if we come away from it unmoved. I must bow before it in silence also, with its powerful reminder that I too will face an eternal Judge one day.
In 1834 a young Englishman named Edward Mote wrote a poem he titled “The Gracious Experience of a Christian.” One of the stanzas included these words:
I trust his righteous character,
His council, promise, and his power;
His honor and his name’s at stake,
To save me from the burning lake.
After American musician William Bradbury wrote a tune for the words in 1863, it became a dearly loved gospel song under the title, “The Solid Rock.” Mote’s last stanza expresses the heart’s desire of Christians everywhere as they realize the seriousness of judgment day:
When he shall come with trumpet sound,
Oh, may I then in him be found;
Dressed in his righteousness alone,
Faultless to stand before the throne.[1]
DIGGING DEEPER:
A. Final Lament for the King of Tyre (28:11–19)
Numerous interpretations have been proposed for this passage, differing in the way the figurative language is construed and the source for the imagery. Some see the figures as simply metaphorical, describing the king of Tyre with various images, stated in bold and exaggerated terms. Others identify the form as allegory, in which another real or simply familiar character (i.e., Satan or a pagan god) is directly addressed, making the connection to the king of Tyre more indirect or inferred. For the imagery some suppose a source in ancient Near Eastern ideology and myth, especially that which was known to be associated with Tyre.68 Others find the source in either a loose rendering of the Genesis creation account of the fall of humankind or in supposing alternative accounts of the fall known through tradition.70 A variant of this approach, favored by several of the church fathers, is to understand for the background of the lament an account of the fall of Satan not given in Scripture but alluded to elsewhere, especially in Isa 14:12–17. Ezekiel would have been relying on his listeners/readers’ familiarity with such an account, and they would have understood the comparison between the fall of Satan and the fall of the king of Tyre. The difficulty of the text makes it unwise to insist upon a particular interpretation, but the latter traditional view appears to the present writer to account best for the language and logic of the passage.
11 The word of the Lord came to me: 12 “Son of man, take up a lament concerning the king of Tyre and say to him: ‘This is what the Sovereign Lord says:
“ ‘You were the model of perfection,
full of wisdom and perfect in beauty.
13 You were in Eden,
the garden of God;
every precious stone adorned you:
ruby, topaz and emerald,
chrysolite, onyx and jasper,
sapphire, turquoise and beryl.
Your settings and mountings were made of gold;
on the day you were created they were prepared.
14 You were anointed as a guardian cherub,
for so I ordained you.
You were on the holy mount of God;
you walked among the fiery stones.
15 You were blameless in your ways
from the day you were created
till wickedness was found in you.
16 Through your widespread trade
you were filled with violence,
and you sinned.
So I drove you in disgrace from the mount of God,
and I expelled you, O guardian cherub,
from among the fiery stones.
17 Your heart became proud
on account of your beauty,
and you corrupted your wisdom
because of your splendor.
So I threw you to the earth;
I made a spectacle of you before kings.
18 By your many sins and dishonest trade
you have desecrated your sanctuaries.
So I made a fire come out from you,
and it consumed you,
and I reduced you to ashes on the ground
in the sight of all who were watching.
19 All the nations who knew you
are appalled at you;
you have come to a horrible end
and will be no more.’ ”
28:11–19 The context of chaps. 26–28 and the stated subject, “concerning the king of Tyre,” make it clear that the primary message here regards the literal king of Tyre. The word “king” (melek) is used elsewhere in Ezekiel primarily of the kings of Babylon (e.g., 17:12; 19:9; 21:19; 24:2; 26:7; 29:18; 30:10; 32:11) and Egypt (29:2; 30:21; 31:2; 32:2). The fact that the “ruler” (nāgîd) of Tyre in 28:1 is here called “king” suggests to some that there is something different about the one addressed in the lament. One suggestion is that it is the patron god of Tyre in view here, whose name, Melkart, means “king of the city.” This view is difficult, as Zimmerli argues, since “king” elsewhere in Ezekiel describes an earthly ruler. In a parallel verse in 32:2 it refers to the Egyptian pharaoh—“Son of man, take up a lament concerning Pharaoh king of Egypt.” Zimmerli’s alternative explanation, however, that the different terms betray the separate origins of the two oracles is at least as unlikely.
The statement “you were in Eden, the garden of God” (v. 13; cf. 31:8–9) must mean that the king of Tyre is being compared to someone who was in the garden of Eden. The verses describe someone in an exalted position who was favored by God but who became corrupt and lost that position. This could describe the first man, Adam.76 Yet even granting the figurative nature of language, it seems that something more than a human creature is in view. Perhaps Adam was a “model of perfection,” “full of wisdom,” and “perfect in beauty” (v. 12), but Scripture never describes him as such. Nor does it speak of him as adorned with “every precious stone” (v. 13). The difficulty, however, is that no one else is described in such terms either. Some suggest that adornment with precious stones is an allusion to the Jewish high priest (Exod 28:17–20), but such a confusion of images would hardly communicate a coherent message.
Especially significant is that the one addressed was “anointed” (v. 14) and “ordained” as “a guardian cherub” by the God who was speaking through Ezekiel (v. 14) and that he previously dwelt not on the earth (v. 17) but “on the holy mount of God” and “walked among the fiery stones” (v. 14). Such descriptions make it unlikely that a strictly human creature is in view.
Furthermore, the cause for his loss of favor and exalted position do not match the biblical account of the fall of humanity. The woman was driven by a desire to gain wisdom and become like God (Gen 3:5–6). But this character’s sin is said to have arisen from pride on account of his “beauty” (v. 17) and “splendor.” Consequently, he “corrupted” his divine gifts and became full of “wickedness” and “violence” (vv. 15–17).
Some of the difficulties of identification may result from a shift of focus back and forth between the king of Tyre and the figurative character. The comparison has surely been temporarily abandoned when “widespread trade” is said to be the expression, cause, or occasion for his wickedness and violence (v. 16). This apparently was something true of Tyre but not of anyone in Eden. However, this shift of focus does not explain all the divergencies unless the figurative character was a supernatural one. Nor does Scripture ascribe this specific kind of wickedness or the resulting judgment to humankind generally after the fall. The flood is said to have been God’s judgment on the “wickedness” of a “corrupt” world “full of violence” (Gen 6:5, 11–13), and the people in the “plain of Shinar” exhibited great pride in desiring to “make a name” for themselves by building “a tower that reaches to the heavens” (Gen 11:1–4). But in neither case was the judgment described as being driven “in disgrace from the mount of God,” “expelled … from among the fiery stones,” or thrown “to the earth” (Ezek 28:16–17), although Adam and his wife were “banished” and driven from “the Garden of Eden” (Gen 3:24).
The suggestion that the passage has borrowed from some creation account other than Gen 1–3 is purely conjectural and highly speculative. Borrowing is not the best answer to the question of the interpretation of Ezek 28. To suggest that it is purely an imaginary story about creation that also involved the king of Tyre, composed from the mind of Ezekiel, stretches our own imagination.
Who, then, was the person whose character was like the king of Tyre that fulfilled the elements of vv. 12–17? The serpent was known for his craftiness (Gen 3:1), his deceit, and his anti-God attitude (3:4), leading humanity to sin (3:6–7). Elsewhere he is presented as a deceiver (Rev 12:9; 20:2), an instigator of evil (John 13:2, 27), one who seeks worship as a god (Luke 4:6–8; 2 Thess 2:3–4), and one who seeks to get others to renounce God (Job 2:4–5). He appears as an angel of God (2 Cor 11:14) and as the father of lies and violence (John 8:44), distorts Scripture (Matt 4:6), opposes believers (2 Cor 2:11), and finally is judged (Matt 25:41; Rev 19:20–21; 20:13–15). Therefore the conclusion that the figure behind the poetic symbol is the serpent (also known as the adversary, the devil, Satan; Rev 12:9) is a logical one.
Ezekiel began with a funeral lament for the city of Tyre (27:1–36), calling attention to its materialism, pride, and self-sufficiency. He then moved to a discussion of the king of Tyre presenting his arrogance and self-will (28:1–19). Overlaid in these prophetic messages are many elements that extend beyond the characteristics of the city or the king. This is not an unusual prophetic phenomenon. Ezekiel presented the king of Tyre as an evil tyrant who was animated and motivated by a more sinister, unseen tyrant, Satan. The picture presented by the prophet goes beyond what we know about the adversary in other passages. It tells us of his wisdom, beauty, appearance of perfection, appointment as a guardian and his expulsion from the presence of God.
Of the twenty elements associated with the king of Tyre in 28:11–19 most also are found in Isaiah’s indictment of another tyrannical ruler, the king of Babylon (Isaiah 14:12–17). These passages sometimes are compared and related to Satan as the figure behind the elements. Of the twenty elements, fourtee.[2]
B. According to what they had done.
Scripture consistently teaches that at the final reckoning for our lives, both the righteous and the wicked will give account for their deeds. Complementary truths are at work here: we are saved by grace through faith; true faith reveals itself by its righteous works. Important passages that point forward to a general judgment are these.
• Psalms 62:12—You, O Lord, are loving. Surely, you will reward each person according to what he has done.
• Jeremiah 17:10—I the Lord search the heart and examine the mind, to reward a man according to his conduct, according to what his deeds deserve.
• Matthew 25:31–32—When the Son of Man comes in his glory, and all the angels with him, he will sit on his throne in heavenly glory. All the nations will be gathered before him, and he will separate the people one from another as a shepherd separates the sheep from the goats.
• Romans 2:6—God “will give to each person according to what he has done.”
• Romans 14:10—You, then, why do you judge your brother? Or why do you look down on your brother? For we will all stand before God’s judgment seat.
• 1 Corinthians 3:13–14—The Day will bring it to light. It will be revealed with fire, and the fire will test the quality of each man’s work. If what he has built survives, he will receive his reward.
• 2 Corinthians 5:10—For we must all appear before the judgment seat of Christ, that each one may receive what is due him for the things done while in the body, whether good or bad.
• 1 Peter 1:17—Since you call on a Father who judges each man’s work impartially, live your lives as strangers here in reverent fear.[3]
DISCUSSION:
1. What aspects of the Prince of Tyre's behavior led to his downfall?
2. How does Ezekiel's description of the King of Tyre parallel traditional views of Satan's fall?
3. What does the prophecy against Tyre teach about the dangers of pride and arrogance?
4. How might the Prince of Tyre's belief in his own divinity relate to modern forms of self-glorification?
5. How can you apply the lessons of humility from this chapter in your daily life?
PRAYER:
[1] Kendell H. Easley, Revelation, vol. 12, Holman New Testament Commentary (Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1998), 383–384.
[2] Lamar Eugene Cooper, Ezekiel, vol. 17, The New American Commentary (Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1994), 264–269.
[3] Kendell H. Easley, Revelation, vol. 12, Holman New Testament Commentary (Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1998), 387.
Lucifer’s Fall:
A. His Perfection - Ezekiel 28:11-15
B. His Pride - Ezekiel 28:16-19; Isaiah 14:12-14
Lucifer’s Fate: Isaiah 14:15-21
Lucifer’s Final Destination: Rev. 20: 7-10
QUESTIONS:
- What did the message teach me about God/Jesus/Holy Spirit?
- What did the message teach me about the human condition?
- Is there anything I need to confess, repent, or be grateful for, because of this passage?
- How do I need help in believing and applying this scripture to my life?
- How can I encourage others with this passage?
LIFE APPLICATION :
Living in the Light of Judgment Day
In medieval Europe, powerful church leaders taught ordinary people that this life is a temporary pilgrimage, a time of preparing for the eternal state. Everyone understood that they would one day stand before God on judgment day to face his fearful sentence. The greatest painter ever to depict the judgment was Michelangelo. Many believe that his awesome fresco of the last judgment (painted 1536–41 for Pope Paul III) in the Sistine Chapel, along with the even more famous frescoes on the chapel’s ceiling, is the most important art produced during the Renaissance. I have stood before it in silence with its powerful reminder that I, too, will face an eternal Judge one day.
The conviction that one must live every day in preparation for judgment day pervaded everyday life in those days to an extent we cannot imagine. In fact, contemporary people often live by the reverse belief: this life is all there is, so enjoy it to the fullest. It’s hard to think about a contemporary painter creating a great masterpiece about the coming day of judgment and then being taken seriously by the world’s artistic community.
Revelation 20 is another such masterpiece, literary rather than visual, and centuries older than Michelangelo’s great work. Despite the difficulties in interpreting portions of the chapter, the central theme is overwhelming. We have misread the chapter if we come away from it unmoved. I must bow before it in silence also, with its powerful reminder that I too will face an eternal Judge one day.
In 1834 a young Englishman named Edward Mote wrote a poem he titled “The Gracious Experience of a Christian.” One of the stanzas included these words:
I trust his righteous character,
His council, promise, and his power;
His honor and his name’s at stake,
To save me from the burning lake.
After American musician William Bradbury wrote a tune for the words in 1863, it became a dearly loved gospel song under the title, “The Solid Rock.” Mote’s last stanza expresses the heart’s desire of Christians everywhere as they realize the seriousness of judgment day:
When he shall come with trumpet sound,
Oh, may I then in him be found;
Dressed in his righteousness alone,
Faultless to stand before the throne.[1]
DIGGING DEEPER:
A. Final Lament for the King of Tyre (28:11–19)
Numerous interpretations have been proposed for this passage, differing in the way the figurative language is construed and the source for the imagery. Some see the figures as simply metaphorical, describing the king of Tyre with various images, stated in bold and exaggerated terms. Others identify the form as allegory, in which another real or simply familiar character (i.e., Satan or a pagan god) is directly addressed, making the connection to the king of Tyre more indirect or inferred. For the imagery some suppose a source in ancient Near Eastern ideology and myth, especially that which was known to be associated with Tyre.68 Others find the source in either a loose rendering of the Genesis creation account of the fall of humankind or in supposing alternative accounts of the fall known through tradition.70 A variant of this approach, favored by several of the church fathers, is to understand for the background of the lament an account of the fall of Satan not given in Scripture but alluded to elsewhere, especially in Isa 14:12–17. Ezekiel would have been relying on his listeners/readers’ familiarity with such an account, and they would have understood the comparison between the fall of Satan and the fall of the king of Tyre. The difficulty of the text makes it unwise to insist upon a particular interpretation, but the latter traditional view appears to the present writer to account best for the language and logic of the passage.
11 The word of the Lord came to me: 12 “Son of man, take up a lament concerning the king of Tyre and say to him: ‘This is what the Sovereign Lord says:
“ ‘You were the model of perfection,
full of wisdom and perfect in beauty.
13 You were in Eden,
the garden of God;
every precious stone adorned you:
ruby, topaz and emerald,
chrysolite, onyx and jasper,
sapphire, turquoise and beryl.
Your settings and mountings were made of gold;
on the day you were created they were prepared.
14 You were anointed as a guardian cherub,
for so I ordained you.
You were on the holy mount of God;
you walked among the fiery stones.
15 You were blameless in your ways
from the day you were created
till wickedness was found in you.
16 Through your widespread trade
you were filled with violence,
and you sinned.
So I drove you in disgrace from the mount of God,
and I expelled you, O guardian cherub,
from among the fiery stones.
17 Your heart became proud
on account of your beauty,
and you corrupted your wisdom
because of your splendor.
So I threw you to the earth;
I made a spectacle of you before kings.
18 By your many sins and dishonest trade
you have desecrated your sanctuaries.
So I made a fire come out from you,
and it consumed you,
and I reduced you to ashes on the ground
in the sight of all who were watching.
19 All the nations who knew you
are appalled at you;
you have come to a horrible end
and will be no more.’ ”
28:11–19 The context of chaps. 26–28 and the stated subject, “concerning the king of Tyre,” make it clear that the primary message here regards the literal king of Tyre. The word “king” (melek) is used elsewhere in Ezekiel primarily of the kings of Babylon (e.g., 17:12; 19:9; 21:19; 24:2; 26:7; 29:18; 30:10; 32:11) and Egypt (29:2; 30:21; 31:2; 32:2). The fact that the “ruler” (nāgîd) of Tyre in 28:1 is here called “king” suggests to some that there is something different about the one addressed in the lament. One suggestion is that it is the patron god of Tyre in view here, whose name, Melkart, means “king of the city.” This view is difficult, as Zimmerli argues, since “king” elsewhere in Ezekiel describes an earthly ruler. In a parallel verse in 32:2 it refers to the Egyptian pharaoh—“Son of man, take up a lament concerning Pharaoh king of Egypt.” Zimmerli’s alternative explanation, however, that the different terms betray the separate origins of the two oracles is at least as unlikely.
The statement “you were in Eden, the garden of God” (v. 13; cf. 31:8–9) must mean that the king of Tyre is being compared to someone who was in the garden of Eden. The verses describe someone in an exalted position who was favored by God but who became corrupt and lost that position. This could describe the first man, Adam.76 Yet even granting the figurative nature of language, it seems that something more than a human creature is in view. Perhaps Adam was a “model of perfection,” “full of wisdom,” and “perfect in beauty” (v. 12), but Scripture never describes him as such. Nor does it speak of him as adorned with “every precious stone” (v. 13). The difficulty, however, is that no one else is described in such terms either. Some suggest that adornment with precious stones is an allusion to the Jewish high priest (Exod 28:17–20), but such a confusion of images would hardly communicate a coherent message.
Especially significant is that the one addressed was “anointed” (v. 14) and “ordained” as “a guardian cherub” by the God who was speaking through Ezekiel (v. 14) and that he previously dwelt not on the earth (v. 17) but “on the holy mount of God” and “walked among the fiery stones” (v. 14). Such descriptions make it unlikely that a strictly human creature is in view.
Furthermore, the cause for his loss of favor and exalted position do not match the biblical account of the fall of humanity. The woman was driven by a desire to gain wisdom and become like God (Gen 3:5–6). But this character’s sin is said to have arisen from pride on account of his “beauty” (v. 17) and “splendor.” Consequently, he “corrupted” his divine gifts and became full of “wickedness” and “violence” (vv. 15–17).
Some of the difficulties of identification may result from a shift of focus back and forth between the king of Tyre and the figurative character. The comparison has surely been temporarily abandoned when “widespread trade” is said to be the expression, cause, or occasion for his wickedness and violence (v. 16). This apparently was something true of Tyre but not of anyone in Eden. However, this shift of focus does not explain all the divergencies unless the figurative character was a supernatural one. Nor does Scripture ascribe this specific kind of wickedness or the resulting judgment to humankind generally after the fall. The flood is said to have been God’s judgment on the “wickedness” of a “corrupt” world “full of violence” (Gen 6:5, 11–13), and the people in the “plain of Shinar” exhibited great pride in desiring to “make a name” for themselves by building “a tower that reaches to the heavens” (Gen 11:1–4). But in neither case was the judgment described as being driven “in disgrace from the mount of God,” “expelled … from among the fiery stones,” or thrown “to the earth” (Ezek 28:16–17), although Adam and his wife were “banished” and driven from “the Garden of Eden” (Gen 3:24).
The suggestion that the passage has borrowed from some creation account other than Gen 1–3 is purely conjectural and highly speculative. Borrowing is not the best answer to the question of the interpretation of Ezek 28. To suggest that it is purely an imaginary story about creation that also involved the king of Tyre, composed from the mind of Ezekiel, stretches our own imagination.
Who, then, was the person whose character was like the king of Tyre that fulfilled the elements of vv. 12–17? The serpent was known for his craftiness (Gen 3:1), his deceit, and his anti-God attitude (3:4), leading humanity to sin (3:6–7). Elsewhere he is presented as a deceiver (Rev 12:9; 20:2), an instigator of evil (John 13:2, 27), one who seeks worship as a god (Luke 4:6–8; 2 Thess 2:3–4), and one who seeks to get others to renounce God (Job 2:4–5). He appears as an angel of God (2 Cor 11:14) and as the father of lies and violence (John 8:44), distorts Scripture (Matt 4:6), opposes believers (2 Cor 2:11), and finally is judged (Matt 25:41; Rev 19:20–21; 20:13–15). Therefore the conclusion that the figure behind the poetic symbol is the serpent (also known as the adversary, the devil, Satan; Rev 12:9) is a logical one.
Ezekiel began with a funeral lament for the city of Tyre (27:1–36), calling attention to its materialism, pride, and self-sufficiency. He then moved to a discussion of the king of Tyre presenting his arrogance and self-will (28:1–19). Overlaid in these prophetic messages are many elements that extend beyond the characteristics of the city or the king. This is not an unusual prophetic phenomenon. Ezekiel presented the king of Tyre as an evil tyrant who was animated and motivated by a more sinister, unseen tyrant, Satan. The picture presented by the prophet goes beyond what we know about the adversary in other passages. It tells us of his wisdom, beauty, appearance of perfection, appointment as a guardian and his expulsion from the presence of God.
Of the twenty elements associated with the king of Tyre in 28:11–19 most also are found in Isaiah’s indictment of another tyrannical ruler, the king of Babylon (Isaiah 14:12–17). These passages sometimes are compared and related to Satan as the figure behind the elements. Of the twenty elements, fourtee.[2]
B. According to what they had done.
Scripture consistently teaches that at the final reckoning for our lives, both the righteous and the wicked will give account for their deeds. Complementary truths are at work here: we are saved by grace through faith; true faith reveals itself by its righteous works. Important passages that point forward to a general judgment are these.
• Psalms 62:12—You, O Lord, are loving. Surely, you will reward each person according to what he has done.
• Jeremiah 17:10—I the Lord search the heart and examine the mind, to reward a man according to his conduct, according to what his deeds deserve.
• Matthew 25:31–32—When the Son of Man comes in his glory, and all the angels with him, he will sit on his throne in heavenly glory. All the nations will be gathered before him, and he will separate the people one from another as a shepherd separates the sheep from the goats.
• Romans 2:6—God “will give to each person according to what he has done.”
• Romans 14:10—You, then, why do you judge your brother? Or why do you look down on your brother? For we will all stand before God’s judgment seat.
• 1 Corinthians 3:13–14—The Day will bring it to light. It will be revealed with fire, and the fire will test the quality of each man’s work. If what he has built survives, he will receive his reward.
• 2 Corinthians 5:10—For we must all appear before the judgment seat of Christ, that each one may receive what is due him for the things done while in the body, whether good or bad.
• 1 Peter 1:17—Since you call on a Father who judges each man’s work impartially, live your lives as strangers here in reverent fear.[3]
DISCUSSION:
1. What aspects of the Prince of Tyre's behavior led to his downfall?
2. How does Ezekiel's description of the King of Tyre parallel traditional views of Satan's fall?
3. What does the prophecy against Tyre teach about the dangers of pride and arrogance?
4. How might the Prince of Tyre's belief in his own divinity relate to modern forms of self-glorification?
5. How can you apply the lessons of humility from this chapter in your daily life?
PRAYER:
[1] Kendell H. Easley, Revelation, vol. 12, Holman New Testament Commentary (Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1998), 383–384.
[2] Lamar Eugene Cooper, Ezekiel, vol. 17, The New American Commentary (Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1994), 264–269.
[3] Kendell H. Easley, Revelation, vol. 12, Holman New Testament Commentary (Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1998), 387.